SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

Micron Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

<title>Visual perception</title>

</head>

<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Visual perception</span></span>

</h1>

</header>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Sight" and "Eyesight" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="Sight_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Sight (disambiguation)">Sight (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="Eyesight_(song)" title="Eyesight (song)">Eyesight (song)</a>.</div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

</p>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;background:#ccccff;"><a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0;padding:0.8em;"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.35em;">

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Subfields_of_psychology" title="Subfields of psychology">Subfields</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Basic_science_(psychology)" title="Basic science (psychology)">Basic psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">

<ul><li><a href="Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">Abnormal</a></li>

<li><a href="Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Affective_science" title="Affective science">Affective science</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a>/<a href="Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive neuroscience</a>

<ul><li><a href="Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental</a></li>

<li><a href="Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">Differential</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">Experimental</a></li>

<li><a href="Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">Mathematical</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">Personality</a></li>

<li><a href="Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">Psychophysiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantitative_psychology" title="Quantitative psychology">Quantitative</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li>

<li><a href="Theoretical_psychology" title="Theoretical psychology">Theoretical</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Applied_psychology" title="Applied psychology">Applied psychology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">

<ul><li><a href="Anomalistic_psychology" title="Anomalistic psychology">Anomalistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_testing" title="Psychological testing">Assessment</a></li>

<li><a href="Aviation_psychology" title="Aviation psychology">Aviation</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychobiography" title="Psychobiography">Biography of famous people</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical</a></li>

<li><a href="Coaching_psychology" title="Coaching psychology">Coaching</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology of color">Color</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_psychology" title="Community psychology">Community</a></li>

<li><a href="Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer</a></li>

<li><a href="Counseling_psychology" title="Counseling psychology">Counseling</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_psychology" title="Critical psychology">Critical</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational</a></li>

<li><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Fashion_psychology" title="Fashion psychology">Fashion</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Feminist</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychohistory" title="Psychohistory">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Industrial and organizational</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_psychology" title="Legal psychology">Legal</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_psychology" title="Media psychology">Media</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_psychology" title="Medical psychology">Medical</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_psychology" title="Military psychology">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Music psychology">Music</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health</a></li>

<li><a href="Pastoral_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral psychology">Pastoral</a></li>

<li><a href="Peace_psychology" title="Peace psychology">Peace and war</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">Political</a></li>

<li><a href="Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive</a></li>

<li><a href="Photo_psychology" title="Photo psychology">Photography</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Religion</a></li>

<li><a href="School_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="School psychology">School</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_psychology" title="Space psychology">Space</a></li>

<li><a href="Sport_psychology" title="Sport psychology">Sport and exercise</a></li>

<li><a href="Suicidology" title="Suicidology">Suicidology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Stock_trader" title="Stock trader">Trading</a></li>

<li><a href="Traffic_psychology" title="Traffic psychology">Traffic</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="Behavior" title="Behavior">Behavior</a></li>

<li><a href="Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Behavioral engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioral genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Competence_(polyseme)" title="Competence (polyseme)">Competence</a></li>

<li><a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behavior</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a></li>

<li><a href="Feeling" title="Feeling">Feelings</a></li>

<li><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs" title="Maslow's hierarchy of needs">Maslow's hierarchy of needs</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_state" title="Mental state">Mental state</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology of religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></li>

<li><a href="Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a></li></ul>

</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_counseling" title="Outline of counseling">Counseling topics</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_branches_of_psychology" title="List of branches of psychology">Disciplines</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychology_organizations" title="List of psychology organizations">Organizations</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychologists" title="List of psychologists">Psychologists</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychotherapies" title="List of psychotherapies">Psychotherapies</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Research methods</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_psychological_schools" title="List of psychological schools">Schools of thought</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_psychology" title="Timeline of psychology">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_psychology_articles" title="Index of psychology articles">Topics</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="skin-invert-image noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3APsychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p><b>Visual perception</b> is the ability to detect light and use it to form an image of the surrounding <a href="Biophysical_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Biophysical environment">environment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Photodetection without image formation is classified as <i>light sensing</i>. In most vertebrates, visual perception can be enabled by <a href="Photopic_vision" title="Photopic vision">photopic vision</a> (daytime vision) or <a href="Scotopic_vision" title="Scotopic vision">scotopic vision</a> (night vision), with most vertebrates having both. Visual perception detects light (photons) in the <a href="Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible spectrum</a> reflected by objects in the environment or emitted by light sources. The <a href="Light" title="Light">visible range of light</a> is defined by what is readily perceptible to humans, though the visual perception of non-humans often extends beyond the visual spectrum. The resulting <a href="Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> is also known as <b>vision</b>, <b>sight</b>, or <b>eyesight</b> (adjectives <i>visual</i>, <i>optical</i>, and <i>ocular</i>, respectively). The various physiological components involved in vision are referred to collectively as the <a href="Visual_system" title="Visual system">visual system</a>, and are the focus of much research in <a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>, <a href="Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>, and <a href="Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>, collectively referred to as <a href="Vision_science" title="Vision science">vision science</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Visual_system">Visual system</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Visual_system" title="Visual system">Visual system</a></div>

<p>Most vertebrates achieve vision through similar visual systems. Generally, light enters the eye through the <a href="Cornea" title="Cornea">cornea</a> and is focused by the <a href="Lens_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (anatomy)">lens</a> onto the <a href="Retina" title="Retina">retina</a>, a light-sensitive membrane at the back of the eye. Specialized <a href="Photoreceptor_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoreceptor cells">photoreceptive cells</a> in the retina act as <a href="Visual_phototransduction" title="Visual phototransduction">transducers</a>, converting the light into <a href="Action_potential" title="Action potential">neural impulses</a>. The photoreceptors are broadly classes into <a href="Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">cone cells</a> and <a href="Rod_cell" title="Rod cell">rod cells</a>, which enable photopic and scotopic vision, respectively. These photoreceptors' signals are transmitted by the <a href="Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">optic nerve</a>, from the retina upstream to central <a href="Ganglia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganglia">ganglia</a> in the <a href="Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>. The <a href="Lateral_geniculate_nucleus" title="Lateral geniculate nucleus">lateral geniculate nucleus</a>, which transmits the information to the <a href="Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">visual cortex</a>. Signals from the retina also travel directly from the retina to the <a href="Superior_colliculus" title="Superior colliculus">superior colliculus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The lateral geniculate nucleus sends signals to the <a href="Primary_visual_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary visual cortex">primary visual cortex</a>, also called striate cortex. <a href="Extrastriate_cortex" title="Extrastriate cortex">Extrastriate cortex</a>, also called <a href="Visual_association_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual association cortex">visual association cortex</a> is a set of cortical structures, that receive information from striate cortex, as well as each other.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlson_2013_187-189_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson_2013_187-189-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent descriptions of visual association cortex describe a division into two functional pathways, a <a href="Anatomical_terms_of_location" title="Anatomical terms of location">ventral</a> and a <a href="Anatomical_terms_of_location" title="Anatomical terms of location">dorsal</a> pathway. This conjecture is known as the <a href="Two_streams_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Two streams hypothesis">two streams hypothesis</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Study">Study</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Two-streams_hypothesis" title="Two-streams hypothesis">Two-streams hypothesis</a></div>

<p>The major problem in visual perception is that what people see is not simply a translation of retinal stimuli (i.e., the image on the retina), with the brain altering the basic information taken in. Thus people interested in perception have long struggled to explain what <a href="Visual_processing" title="Visual processing">visual processing</a> does to create what is actually seen.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_studies">Early studies</h3></div>

<p>There were two major <a href="Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> schools, providing a primitive explanation of how vision works.

</p><p>The first was the "<a href="Emission_theory_(vision)" title="Emission theory (vision)">emission theory</a>" of vision which maintained that vision occurs when rays emanate from the eyes and are intercepted by visual objects. If an object was seen directly it was by 'means of rays' coming out of the eyes and again falling on the object. A refracted image was, however, seen by 'means of rays' as well, which came out of the eyes, traversed through the air, and after refraction, fell on the visible object which was sighted as the result of the movement of the rays from the eye. This theory was championed by scholars who were followers of <a href="Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>'s <i><a href="Euclid's_Optics" title="Euclid's Optics">Optics</a></i> and <a href="Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <i><a href="Optics_(Ptolemy)" title="Optics (Ptolemy)">Optics</a></i>.

</p><p>The second school advocated the so-called 'intromission' approach which sees vision as coming from something entering the eyes representative of the object. With its main propagator <a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<i><a href="Sense_and_Sensibilia_(Aristotle)" title="Sense and Sensibilia (Aristotle)">De Sensu</a></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-Finger_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finger-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his followers,<sup id="cite_ref-Finger_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finger-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this theory seems to have some contact with modern theories of what vision really is, but it remained only a speculation lacking any experimental foundation. (In eighteenth-century England, <a href="Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, <a href="John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, and others, carried the <b>intromission theory</b> of vision forward by insisting that vision involved a process in which rays—composed of actual corporeal matter—emanated from seen objects and entered the seer's mind/sensorium through the eye's aperture.)<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Both schools of thought relied upon the principle that "like is only known by like", and thus upon the notion that the eye was composed of some "internal fire" that interacted with the "external fire" of visible light and made vision possible. <a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> makes this assertion in his dialogue <i><a href="Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> (45b and 46b), as does <a href="Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a> (as reported by Aristotle in his <i>De Sensu</i>, <a href="Diels%E2%80%93Kranz_numbering_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Diels–Kranz numbering system">DK</a> frag. B17).<sup id="cite_ref-Finger_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finger-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p><a href="Alhazen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhazen">Alhazen</a> (965 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1040) carried out many investigations and <a href="Experiment" title="Experiment">experiments</a> on visual perception, extended the work of Ptolemy on <a href="Binocular_vision" title="Binocular vision">binocular vision</a>, and commented on the anatomical works of Galen.<sup id="cite_ref-Howard_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howard-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Khaleefa_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khaleefa-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was the first person to explain that vision occurs when light bounces on an object and then is directed to one's eyes.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> (1452–1519) is believed to be the first to recognize the special optical qualities of the eye. He wrote "The function of the human eye ... was described by a large number of authors in a certain way. But I found it to be completely different." His main experimental finding was that there is only a distinct and clear vision at the line of sight—the optical line that ends at the <a href="Fovea_centralis" title="Fovea centralis">fovea</a>. Although he did not use these words literally he actually is the father of the modern distinction between foveal and <a href="Peripheral_vision" title="Peripheral vision">peripheral vision</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> (1642–1726/27) was the first to discover through experimentation, by isolating individual colors of the spectrum of light passing through a <a href="Prism_(optics)" title="Prism (optics)">prism</a>, that the visually perceived color of objects appeared due to the character of light the objects reflected, and that these divided colors could not be changed into any other color, which was contrary to scientific expectation of the day.<sup id="cite_ref-Margaret._2008_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Margaret._2008-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unconscious_inference">Unconscious inference</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Unconscious_inference" title="Unconscious inference">Unconscious inference</a></div>

<p><a href="Helmholtz" class="mw-redirect" title="Helmholtz">Hermann von Helmholtz</a> is often credited with the first modern study of visual perception. Helmholtz examined the human eye and concluded that it was incapable of producing a high-quality image. Insufficient information seemed to make vision impossible. He, therefore, concluded that vision could only be the result of some form of "unconscious inference", coining that term in 1867. He proposed the brain was making assumptions and conclusions from incomplete data, based on previous experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-vonHelmholtz1867_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vonHelmholtz1867-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Inference requires prior experience of the world.

</p><p>Examples of well-known assumptions, based on visual experience, are:

</p>

<ul><li>light comes from above;</li>

<li>objects are normally not viewed from below;</li>

<li>faces are seen (and recognized) upright;<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>closer objects can block the view of more distant objects, but not vice versa; and</li>

<li>figures (i.e., foreground objects) tend to have convex borders.</li></ul>

<p>The study of <a href="Visual_illusions" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual illusions">visual illusions</a> (cases when the inference process goes wrong) has yielded much insight into what sort of assumptions the visual system makes.

</p><p>Another type of unconscious inference hypothesis (based on probabilities) has recently been revived in so-called <a href="Bayesian_approaches_to_brain_function" title="Bayesian approaches to brain function">Bayesian</a> studies of visual perception.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proponents of this approach consider that the visual system performs some form of <a href="Bayesian_inference" title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian inference</a> to derive a perception from sensory data. However, it is not clear how proponents of this view derive, in principle, the relevant probabilities required by the Bayesian equation. Models based on this idea have been used to describe various visual perceptual functions, such as the <a href="Motion_perception" title="Motion perception">perception of motion</a>, the <a href="Depth_perception" title="Depth perception">perception of depth</a>, and <a href="Figure-ground_(perception)" class="mw-redirect" title="Figure-ground (perception)">figure-ground perception</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "wholly empirical theory of perception" is a related and newer approach that rationalizes visual perception without explicitly invoking Bayesian formalisms.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gestalt_theory">Gestalt theory</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt psychology</a></div>

<p><a href="Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt psychologists</a> working primarily in the 1930s and 1940s raised many of the research questions that are studied by vision scientists today.<sup id="cite_ref-Gestalt_and_Vision_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gestalt_and_Vision-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The Gestalt Laws of Organization have guided the study of how people perceive visual components as organized patterns or wholes, instead of many different parts. "Gestalt" is a German word that partially translates to "configuration or pattern" along with "whole or emergent structure". According to this theory, there are eight main factors that determine how the visual system automatically groups elements into patterns: Proximity, Similarity, Closure, Symmetry, Common Fate (i.e. common motion), Continuity as well as Good Gestalt (pattern that is regular, simple, and orderly) and Past Experience.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analysis_of_eye_movement">Analysis of eye movement</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Eye_movement" title="Eye movement">Eye movement</a></div>

<p>During the 1960s, technical development permitted the continuous registration of eye movement during reading,<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor,_1965_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor,_1965-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in picture viewing,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later, in visual problem solving,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and when headset-cameras became available, also during driving.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The picture to the right shows what may happen during the first two seconds of visual inspection. While the background is out of focus, representing the <a href="Peripheral_vision" title="Peripheral vision">peripheral vision</a>, the first eye movement goes to the boots of the man (just because they are very near the starting fixation and have a reasonable contrast). Eye movements serve the function of <a href="Attention" title="Attention">attentional selection</a>, i.e., to select a fraction of all visual inputs for deeper processing by the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The following fixations jump from face to face. They might even permit comparisons between faces.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>It may be concluded that the icon <i>face</i> is a very attractive search icon within the peripheral field of vision. The <a href="Foveal" class="mw-redirect" title="Foveal">foveal</a> vision adds detailed information to the peripheral <i>first impression</i>.

</p><p>It can also be noted that there are different types of eye movements: <a href="Fixational_eye_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="Fixational eye movements">fixational eye movements</a> (<a href="Microsaccade" title="Microsaccade">microsaccades</a>, ocular drift, and tremor), vergence movements, saccadic movements and pursuit movements. <i>Fixations</i> are comparably static points where the eye rests. However, the eye is never completely still, and gaze position will drift. These drifts are in turn corrected by microsaccades, very small fixational eye movements. <i>Vergence movements</i> involve the cooperation of both eyes to allow for an image to fall on the same area of both retinas. This results in a single focused image. <i><a href="Saccade" title="Saccade">Saccadic movements</a></i> is the type of eye movement that makes jumps from one position to another position and is used to rapidly scan a particular scene/image. Lastly, <i><a href="Smooth_pursuit" title="Smooth pursuit">pursuit movement</a></i> is smooth eye movement and is used to follow objects in motion.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Face_and_object_recognition">Face and object recognition</h3></div>

<p>There is considerable evidence that face and <a href="Cognitive_neuroscience_of_visual_object_recognition" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive neuroscience of visual object recognition">object recognition</a> are accomplished by distinct systems. For example, <a href="Prosopagnosia" title="Prosopagnosia">prosopagnosic</a> patients show deficits in face, but not object processing, while object <a href="Agnosia" title="Agnosia">agnosic</a> patients (most notably, <a href="Visual_agnosia#Patient_CK" title="Visual agnosia">patient C.K.</a>) show deficits in object processing with spared face processing.<sup id="cite_ref-PMID_23965118_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMID_23965118-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Behaviorally, it has been shown that faces, but not objects, are subject to inversion effects, leading to the claim that faces are "special".<sup id="cite_ref-PMID_23965118_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PMID_23965118-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, face and object processing recruit distinct neural systems.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notably, some have argued that the apparent specialization of the human brain for face processing does not reflect true domain specificity, but rather a more general process of expert-level discrimination within a given class of stimulus,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though this latter claim is the subject of <a href="Fusiform_face_area#Function_and_controversy" title="Fusiform face area">substantial debate</a>. Using fMRI and electrophysiology Doris Tsao and colleagues described brain regions and a mechanism for <a href="Face_perception" title="Face perception">face recognition</a> in macaque monkeys.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The <a href="Inferior_temporal_gyrus" title="Inferior temporal gyrus">inferotemporal cortex</a> has a key role in the task of recognition and differentiation of different objects. A study by MIT shows that subset regions of the IT cortex are in charge of different objects.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By selectively shutting off neural activity of many small areas of the cortex, the animal gets alternately unable to distinguish between certain particular pairments of objects. This shows that the IT cortex is divided into regions that respond to different and particular visual features. In a similar way, certain particular patches and regions of the cortex are more involved in face recognition than other object recognition.

</p><p>Some studies tend to show that rather than the uniform global image, some particular features and regions of interest of the objects are key elements when the brain needs to recognise an object in an image.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this way, the human vision is vulnerable to small particular changes to the image, such as disrupting the edges of the object, modifying texture or any small change in a crucial region of the image.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Studies of people whose sight has been restored after a long blindness reveal that they cannot necessarily recognize objects and faces (as opposed to color, motion, and simple geometric shapes). Some hypothesize that being blind during childhood prevents some part of the visual system necessary for these higher-level tasks from developing properly.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The general belief that a <a href="Critical_period" title="Critical period">critical period</a> lasts until age 5 or 6 was challenged by a 2007 study that found that older patients could improve these abilities with years of exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cognitive_and_computational_approaches">Cognitive and computational approaches</h2></div>

<p>In the 1970s, <a href="David_Marr_(neuroscientist)" title="David Marr (neuroscientist)">David Marr</a> developed a multi-level theory of vision, which analyzed the process of vision at different levels of abstraction. In order to focus on the understanding of specific problems in vision, he identified three levels of analysis: the <i>computational</i>, <i>algorithmic</i> and <i>implementational</i> levels. Many vision scientists, including <a href="Tomaso_Poggio" title="Tomaso Poggio">Tomaso Poggio</a>, have embraced these levels of analysis and employed them to further characterize vision from a computational perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The <i>computational level</i> addresses, at a high level of abstraction, the problems that the visual system must overcome. The <i>algorithmic level</i> attempts to identify the strategy that may be used to solve these problems. Finally, the <i>implementational level</i> attempts to explain how solutions to these problems are realized in neural circuitry.

</p><p>Marr suggested that it is possible to investigate vision at any of these levels independently. Marr described vision as proceeding from a <a href="Euclidean_plane" title="Euclidean plane">two-dimensional</a> visual array (on the retina) to a <a href="Three-dimensional" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-dimensional">three-dimensional</a> description of the world as output. His stages of vision include:

</p>

<ul><li>A <i>2D</i> or <i>primal sketch</i> of the scene, based on feature extraction of fundamental components of the scene, including edges, regions, etc. Note the similarity in concept to a pencil sketch drawn quickly by an artist as an impression.</li>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> D sketch</i> of the scene, where textures are acknowledged, etc. Note the similarity in concept to the stage in drawing where an artist highlights or shades areas of a scene, to provide depth.</li>

<li>A <i>3 D model</i>, where the scene is visualized in a continuous, 3-dimensional map.<sup id="cite_ref-Marr_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marr-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<p>Marr's 2<span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>D sketch assumes that a depth map is constructed, and that this map is the basis of <a href="3D_shape" class="mw-redirect" title="3D shape">3D shape</a> perception. However, both stereoscopic and pictorial perception, as well as monocular viewing, make clear that the perception of 3D shape precedes, and does not rely on, the perception of the depth of points. It is not clear how a preliminary depth map could, in principle, be constructed, nor how this would address the question of figure-ground organization, or grouping. The role of perceptual organizing constraints, overlooked by Marr, in the production of 3D shape percepts from binocularly-viewed 3D objects has been demonstrated empirically for the case of 3D wire objects, e.g.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a more detailed discussion, see Pizlo (2008).<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A more recent, alternative framework proposes that vision is composed instead of the following three stages: encoding, selection, and decoding.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Encoding is to sample and represent visual inputs (e.g., to represent visual inputs as neural activities in the retina). Selection, or <a href="Attention" title="Attention">attentional selection</a>, is to select a tiny fraction of input information for further processing, e.g., by <a href="Eye_movement" title="Eye movement">shifting gaze</a> to an object or visual location to better process the visual signals at that location. Decoding is to infer or recognize the selected input signals, e.g., to recognize the object at the center of gaze as somebody's face. In this framework,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> attentional selection starts at the <a href="Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">primary visual cortex</a> along the visual pathway, and the attentional constraints impose a dichotomy between the central and <a href="Peripheral_vision" title="Peripheral vision">peripheral</a> visual fields for visual recognition or decoding.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transduction">Transduction</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Visual_phototransduction" title="Visual phototransduction">Visual phototransduction</a></div>

<p>Transduction is the process through which energy from environmental stimuli is converted to neural activity. The <a href="Retina" title="Retina">retina</a> contains three different cell layers: photoreceptor layer, bipolar cell layer, and ganglion cell layer. The photoreceptor layer where transduction occurs is farthest from the lens. It contains photoreceptors with different sensitivities called rods and cones. The cones are responsible for color perception and are of three distinct types labeled red, green, and blue. Rods are responsible for the perception of objects in low light.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Photoreceptors contain within them a special chemical called a photopigment, which is embedded in the membrane of the lamellae; a single human rod contains approximately 10 million of them. The photopigment molecules consist of two parts: an <a href="Opsin" title="Opsin">opsin</a> (a protein) and <a href="Retinal" title="Retinal">retinal</a> (a lipid).<sup id="cite_ref-Carlson_2013_170_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson_2013_170-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are 3 specific photopigments (each with their own wavelength sensitivity) that respond across the spectrum of visible light. When the appropriate wavelengths (those that the specific photopigment is sensitive to) hit the photoreceptor, the photopigment splits into two, which sends a signal to the bipolar cell layer, which in turn sends a signal to the ganglion cells, the axons of which form the <a href="Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">optic nerve</a> and transmit the information to the brain. If a particular cone type is missing or abnormal, due to a genetic anomaly, a <a href="Color_vision_deficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Color vision deficiency">color vision deficiency</a>, sometimes called color blindness will occur.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlson_2010_138–145_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson_2010_138–145-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Opponent_process">Opponent process</h2></div>

<p>Transduction involves chemical messages sent from the photoreceptors to the bipolar cells to the ganglion cells. Several photoreceptors may send their information to one ganglion cell. There are two types of ganglion cells: red/green and yellow/blue. These neurons constantly fire—even when not stimulated. The brain interprets different colors (and with a lot of information, an image) when the rate of firing of these neurons alters. Red light stimulates the red cone, which in turn stimulates the red/green ganglion cell. Likewise, green light stimulates the green cone, which stimulates the green/red ganglion cell and blue light stimulates the blue cone which stimulates the blue/yellow ganglion cell. The rate of firing of the ganglion cells is increased when it is signaled by one cone and decreased (inhibited) when it is signaled by the other cone. The first color in the name of the ganglion cell is the color that excites it and the second is the color that inhibits it. i.e.: A red cone would excite the red/green ganglion cell and the green cone would inhibit the red/green ganglion cell. This is an <a href="Opponent_process" title="Opponent process">opponent process</a>. If the rate of firing of a red/green ganglion cell is increased, the brain would know that the light was red, if the rate was decreased, the brain would know that the color of the light was green.<sup id="cite_ref-Carlson_2010_138–145_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson_2010_138–145-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Artificial_visual_perception">Artificial visual perception</h2></div>

<p>Theories and observations of visual perception have been the main source of inspiration for <a href="Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">computer vision</a> (also called <a href="Machine_vision" title="Machine vision">machine vision</a>, or computational vision). Special hardware structures and software algorithms provide machines with the capability to interpret the images coming from a camera or a sensor.

</p>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="div-col">

<ul><li><a href="Color_vision" title="Color vision">Color vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Depth_perception" title="Depth perception">Depth perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Entoptic_phenomenon" title="Entoptic phenomenon">Entoptic phenomenon</a></li>

<li><a href="Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Lateral_masking" title="Lateral masking">Lateral masking</a></li>

<li><a href="Looming" title="Looming">Looming</a></li>

<li><a href="Naked_eye" title="Naked eye">Naked eye</a></li>

<li><a href="Machine_vision" title="Machine vision">Machine vision</a></li>

<li><a href="McGill_Picture_Anomaly_Test" title="McGill Picture Anomaly Test">McGill Picture Anomaly Test</a></li>

<li><a href="Motion_perception" title="Motion perception">Motion perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Multisensory_integration" title="Multisensory integration">Multisensory integration</a></li>

<li><a href="Interpretation_(philosophy)" title="Interpretation (philosophy)">Interpretation (philosophy)</a></li>

<li><a href="Spatial_frequency" title="Spatial frequency">Spatial frequency</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_illusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual illusion">Visual illusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_processing" title="Visual processing">Visual processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_system" title="Visual system">Visual system</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sensation" class="extiw external" title="wikt:sensation">Sensations</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vision_deficiencies_or_disorders">Vision deficiencies or disorders</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">Achromatopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Akinetopsia" title="Akinetopsia">Akinetopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Apperceptive_agnosia" title="Apperceptive agnosia">Apperceptive agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Associative_visual_agnosia" title="Associative visual agnosia">Associative visual agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">Color blindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Hallucinogen_persisting_perception_disorder" title="Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder">Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder</a></li>

<li><a href="Illusory_palinopsia" title="Illusory palinopsia">Illusory palinopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Prosopagnosia" title="Prosopagnosia">Prosopagnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Refractive_error" title="Refractive error">Refractive error</a></li>

<li><a href="Recovery_from_blindness" title="Recovery from blindness">Recovery from blindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Scotopic_sensitivity_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Scotopic sensitivity syndrome">Scotopic sensitivity syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_agnosia" title="Visual agnosia">Visual agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_snow" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual snow">Visual snow</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_disciplines">Related disciplines</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li>

<li><a href="Optometry" title="Optometry">Optometry</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">Psychophysics</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/biology/chapter/vision/">"Vision"</a>. <i>University of Hawaii</i>. August 22, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 15,</span> 2025</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSadunJohnsonSmith1986" class="citation journal cs1">Sadun, Alfredo A.; Johnson, Betty M.; Smith, Lois E. H. (1986). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/01658108609016476">"Neuroanatomy of the human visual system: Part II Retinal projections to the superior colliculus and pulvinar"</a></span>. <i>Neuro-Ophthalmology</i>. <b>6</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">363–</span>370. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F01658108609016476">10.3109/01658108609016476</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0165-8107">0165-8107</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Carlson_2013_187-189-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carlson_2013_187-189_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCarlson2013" class="citation book cs1">Carlson, Neil R. (2013). "6". <i>Physiology of Behaviour</i> (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, US: Pearson Education Inc. pp. <span class="nowrap">187–</span>189. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-205-23939-9</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Finger-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Finger_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Finger_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Finger_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFinger1994" class="citation book cs1">Finger, Stanley (1994). <i>Origins of neuroscience: a history of explorations into brain function</i>. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">67–</span>69. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-506503-9</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/27151391">27151391</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSwenson_Rivka2010" class="citation journal cs1">Swenson Rivka (2010). "Optics, Gender, and the Eighteenth-Century Gaze: Looking at Eliza Haywood's Anti-Pamela". <i>The Eighteenth Century: Theory and Interpretation</i>. <b>51</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2): <span class="nowrap">27–</span>43. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fecy.2010.0006">10.1353/ecy.2010.0006</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145149737">145149737</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Howard-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Howard_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHoward1996" class="citation journal cs1">Howard, I (1996). "Alhazen's neglected discoveries of visual phenomena". <i>Perception</i>. <b>25</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">1203–</span>1217. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1068%2Fp251203">10.1068/p251203</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9027923">9027923</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20880413">20880413</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Khaleefa-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Khaleefa_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKhaleefa1999" class="citation journal cs1">Khaleefa, Omar (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.35632%2Fajis.v16i2.2126">"Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?"</a>. <i>American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences</i>. <b>16</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>26. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.35632%2Fajis.v16i2.2126">10.35632/ajis.v16i2.2126</a></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAdamson2016" class="citation book cs1">Adamson, Peter (July 7, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KEpRDAAAQBAJ"><i>Philosophy in the Islamic World: A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 77. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-957749-1</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKeele1955" class="citation journal cs1">Keele, Kd (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1918888">"Leonardo da Vinci on vision"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine</i>. <b>48</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">384–</span>390. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F003591575504800512">10.1177/003591575504800512</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0035-9157">0035-9157</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1918888">1918888</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14395232">14395232</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Margaret._2008-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Margaret._2008_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMargaret2008" class="citation book cs1">Margaret, Livingstone (2008). <i>Vision and art : the biology of seeing</i>. Hubel, David H. New York: Abrams. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8109-9554-3</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/192082768">192082768</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-vonHelmholtz1867-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-vonHelmholtz1867_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Helmholtz1925" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">von Helmholtz, Hermann</a> (1925). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180927064524/http://poseidon.sunyopt.edu/BackusLab/Helmholtz/"><i>Handbuch der physiologischen Optik</i></a>. Vol. 3. Leipzig: Voss. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://poseidon.sunyopt.edu/BackusLab/Helmholtz/">the original</a> on September 27, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 14,</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHunziker2006" class="citation book cs1">Hunziker, Hans-Werner (2006). <i>Im Auge des Lesers: foveale und periphere Wahrnehmung – vom Buchstabieren zur Lesefreude [</i>In the eye of the reader:<i> foveal and peripheral perception – from letter recognition to the joy of reading]</i>. Zürich: Transmedia Stäubli Verlag. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-7266-0068-6</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFStone2011" class="citation journal cs1">Stone, JV (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/42967/1/bayes_chilld_Jan2011_v23_sent.pdf">"Footprints sticking out of the sand. Part 2: children's Bayesian priors for shape and lighting direction"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Perception</i>. <b>40</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">175–</span>90. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1068%2Fp6776">10.1068/p6776</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21650091">21650091</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32868278">32868278</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMamassianLandyMaloney2002" class="citation book cs1">Mamassian, Pascal; Landy, Michael; Maloney, Laurence T. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mzBlvComcqwC&pg=PA13">"Bayesian Modelling of Visual Perception"</a>. In Rao, Rajesh P. N.; Olshausen, Bruno A.; Lewicki, Michael S. (eds.). <i>Probabilistic Models of the Brain: Perception and Neural Function</i>. Neural Information Processing. MIT Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">13–</span>36. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-262-26432-7</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060710174621/http://www.purveslab.net/research/primer.html">"A Primer on Probabilistic Approaches to Visual Perception"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.purveslab.net/research/primer.html">the original</a> on July 10, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 14,</span> 2010</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Gestalt_and_Vision-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gestalt_and_Vision_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWagemans2012" class="citation journal cs1">Wagemans, Johan (November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3482144">"A Century of Gestalt Psychology in Visual Perception"</a>. <i>Psychological Bulletin</i>. <b>138</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1172–</span>1217. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.452.8394">10.1.1.452.8394</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0029333">10.1037/a0029333</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3482144">3482144</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22845751">22845751</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWagemansElderKubovyPalmer2012" class="citation journal cs1">Wagemans, Johan; Elder, James H.; Kubovy, Michael; Palmer, Stephen E.; Peterson, Mary A.; Singh, Manish; von der Heydt, Rüdiger (November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3482144/">"A century of Gestalt psychology in visual perception: I. Perceptual grouping and figure-ground organization"</a>. <i>Psychological Bulletin</i>. <b>138</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1172–</span>1217. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0029333">10.1037/a0029333</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-1455">1939-1455</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3482144">3482144</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22845751">22845751</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Taylor,_1965-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Taylor,_1965_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1965" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, Stanford E. (November 1965). "Eye Movements in Reading: Facts and Fallacies". <i>American Educational Research Journal</i>. <b>2</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">187–</span>202. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1161646">10.2307/1161646</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1161646">1161646</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yarbus, A. L. (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kRf3BwAAQBAJ">Eye movements and vision</a>, Plenum Press, New York</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHunziker1970" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hunziker, H. W. (1970). "Visuelle Informationsaufnahme und Intelligenz: Eine Untersuchung über die Augenfixationen beim Problemlösen" [Visual information acquisition and intelligence: A study of the eye fixations in problem solving]. <i>Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Psychologie und Ihre Anwendungen</i> (in German). <b>29</b> (1/2).</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1983" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen, A. S. (1983). "Informationsaufnahme beim Befahren von Kurven, Psychologie für die Praxis 2/83" [Information recording when driving on curves, psychology in practice 2/83]. <i>Bulletin der Schweizerischen Stiftung für Angewandte Psychologie</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPurvesAugustineFitzpatrickKatz2001" class="citation cs2">Purves, Dale; Augustine, George J.; Fitzpatrick, David; Katz, Lawrence C.; LaMantia, Anthony-Samuel; McNamara, James O.; Williams, S. Mark (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10991/">"Types of Eye Movements and Their Functions"</a>, <i>Neuroscience. 2nd edition</i>, Sinauer Associates<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 1,</span> 2025</span></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLiuZhanWang2024" class="citation journal cs1">Liu, Meng; Zhan, Jiayu; Wang, Lihui (September 20, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/abstract/S2589-0042(24)01911-4">"Specified functions of the first two fixations in face recognition: Sampling the general-to-specific facial information"</a>. <i>iScience</i>. <b>27</b> (9). <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.isci.2024.110686">10.1016/j.isci.2024.110686</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2589-0042">2589-0042</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11378928">11378928</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39246447">39246447</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCarlsonHethMillerDonahoe2009" class="citation book cs1">Carlson, Neil R.; Heth, C. Donald; Miller, Harold; Donahoe, John W.; Buskist, William; Martin, G. Neil; Schmaltz, Rodney M. (2009). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/psychologyscienc00carl_645"><i>Psychology the Science of Behaviour</i></a></span>. Toronto Ontario: Pearson Canada. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/psychologyscienc00carl_645/page/n159">140</a>–1. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-205-70286-2</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-PMID_23965118-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PMID_23965118_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PMID_23965118_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMoscovitchWinocurBehrmann1997" class="citation journal cs1">Moscovitch, Morris; Winocur, Gordon; Behrmann, Marlene (1997). "What Is Special about Face Recognition? Nineteen Experiments on a Person with Visual Object Agnosia and Dyslexia but Normal Face Recognition". <i>Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience</i>. <b>9</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">555–</span>604. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fjocn.1997.9.5.555">10.1162/jocn.1997.9.5.555</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23965118">23965118</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207550378">207550378</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFYin1969" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Robert_K._Yin" title="Robert K. Yin">Yin, Robert K.</a> (1969). "Looking at upside-down faces". <i>Journal of Experimental Psychology</i>. <b>81</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">141–</span>5. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0027474">10.1037/h0027474</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKanwisherMcDermottChun1997" class="citation journal cs1">Kanwisher, Nancy; McDermott, Josh; Chun, Marvin M. (June 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6573547">"The fusiform face area: a module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception"</a>. <i>The Journal of Neuroscience</i>. <b>17</b> (11): <span class="nowrap">4302–</span>11. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.17-11-04302.1997">10.1523/JNEUROSCI.17-11-04302.1997</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6573547">6573547</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9151747">9151747</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGauthierSkudlarskiGoreAnderson2000" class="citation journal cs1">Gauthier, Isabel; Skudlarski, Pawel; Gore, John C.; Anderson, Adam W. (February 2000). "Expertise for cars and birds recruits brain areas involved in face recognition". <i><a href="Nature_Neuroscience" title="Nature Neuroscience">Nature Neuroscience</a></i>. <b>3</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">191–</span>7. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F72140">10.1038/72140</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10649576">10649576</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15752722">15752722</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFChangTsao2017" class="citation journal cs1">Chang, Le; Tsao, Doris Y. (June 1, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8088389">"The Code for Facial Identity in the Primate Brain"</a>. <i>Cell</i>. <b>169</b> (6): 1013–1028.e14. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2017.05.011">10.1016/j.cell.2017.05.011</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0092-8674">0092-8674</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8088389">8088389</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28575666">28575666</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.mit.edu/2019/inferotemporal-brain-object-recognition-0313">"How the brain distinguishes between objects"</a>. <i>MIT News</i>. March 13, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 10,</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSrivastavaBen-YosefBoix2019" class="citation book cs1">Srivastava, Sanjana; Ben-Yosef, Guy; Boix, Xavier (February 8, 2019). <i>Minimal Images in Deep Neural Networks: Fragile Object Recognition in Natural Images</i>. <a href="ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1902.03227">1902.03227</a></span>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1106329907">1106329907</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBen-YosefAssifUllman2018" class="citation journal cs1">Ben-Yosef, Guy; Assif, Liav; Ullman, Shimon (February 2018). "Full interpretation of minimal images". <i>Cognition</i>. <b>171</b>: <span class="nowrap">65–</span>84. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cognition.2017.10.006">10.1016/j.cognition.2017.10.006</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F106887">1721.1/106887</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0010-0277">0010-0277</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29107889">29107889</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3372558">3372558</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFElsayedShankarCheungPapernot2018" class="citation journal cs1">Elsayed, Gamaleldin F.; Shankar, Shreya; Cheung, Brian; Papernot, Nicolas; Kurakin, Alex; Goodfellow, Ian; Sohl-Dickstein, Jascha (February 22, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://proceedings.neurips.cc/paper_files/paper/2018/file/8562ae5e286544710b2e7ebe9858833b-Paper.pdf">"Adversarial Examples that Fool both Computer Vision and Time-Limited Humans"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 31 (NeurIPS 2018)</i>. <a href="ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1802.08195">1802.08195</a></span>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1106289156">1106289156</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washington.edu/news/2015/04/15/man-with-restored-sight-provides-new-insight-into-how-vision-develops/">Man with restored sight provides new insight into how vision develops</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/09/090917115658.htm">Out Of Darkness, Sight: Rare Cases Of Restored Vision Reveal How The Brain Learns To See</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPoggio1981" class="citation journal cs1">Poggio, Tomaso (1981). "Marr's Computational Approach to Vision". <i>Trends in Neurosciences</i>. <b>4</b>: <span class="nowrap">258–</span>262. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0166-2236%2881%2990081-3">10.1016/0166-2236(81)90081-3</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53163190">53163190</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Marr-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Marr_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMarr1982" class="citation book cs1">Marr, D (1982). <i>Vision: A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual Information</i>. <a href="MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRockDiVita1987" class="citation journal cs1">Rock, Irvin; DiVita, Joseph (1987). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0010028587900132">"A case of viewer-centered object perception"</a></span>. <i>Cognitive Psychology</i>. <b>19</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">280–</span>293. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0010-0285%2887%2990013-2">10.1016/0010-0285(87)90013-2</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3581759">3581759</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40154873">40154873</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPizloStevenson1999" class="citation journal cs1">Pizlo, Zygmunt; Stevenson, Adam K. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3758%2FBF03206181">"Shape constancy from novel views"</a>. <i>Perception & Psychophysics</i>. <b>61</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">1299–</span>1307. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3758%2FBF03206181">10.3758/BF03206181</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-5117">0031-5117</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10572459">10572459</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8041318">8041318</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qRqC4Uh8WmIC&pg=PP1">3D Shape</a>, Z. Pizlo (2008) MIT Press</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZhaoping2014" class="citation book cs1">Zhaoping, Li (2014). <i>Understanding vision: theory, models, and data</i>. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0199564668</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZhaoping2019" class="citation journal cs1">Zhaoping, L (2019). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959438819300042">"A new framework for understanding vision from the perspective of the primary visual cortex"</a></span>. <i>Current Opinion in Neurobiology</i>. <b>58</b>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>10. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.conb.2019.06.001">10.1016/j.conb.2019.06.001</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31271931">31271931</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:195806018">195806018</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHecht1937" class="citation journal cs1">Hecht, Selig (April 1, 1937). "Rods, Cones, and the Chemical Basis of Vision". <i>Physiological Reviews</i>. <b>17</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">239–</span>290. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fphysrev.1937.17.2.239">10.1152/physrev.1937.17.2.239</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9333">0031-9333</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Carlson_2013_170-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carlson_2013_170_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCarlson2013" class="citation book cs1">Carlson, Neil R. (2013). "6". <i>Physiology of Behaviour</i> (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, US: Pearson Education Inc. p. 170. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-205-23939-9</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Carlson_2010_138–145-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carlson_2010_138–145_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carlson_2010_138–145_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCarlsonHeth,_C._Donald2010" class="citation book cs1">Carlson, Neil R.; Heth, C. Donald (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/psychologyscienc0004unse/page/138">"5"</a>. <i>Psychology the science of behaviour</i> (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, US: Pearson Education Inc. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/psychologyscienc0004unse/page/138">138–145</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-205-64524-4</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFVon_Helmholtz1867" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Von Helmholtz, Hermann</a> (1867). <i>Handbuch der physiologischen Optik</i>. Vol. 3. Leipzig: Voss.</cite> Quotations are from the English translation produced by the Optical Society of America (1924–25): <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://poseidon.sunyopt.edu/BackusLab/Helmholtz/">Treatise on Physiological Optics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180927064524/http://poseidon.sunyopt.edu/BackusLab/Helmholtz/">Archived</a> September 27, 2018, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .infobox .side-box{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="side-box side-box-right sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <wbr><i><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sight" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Sight">Sight</a></b></i> and <wbr><i><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Vision" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Vision">Vision</a></b></i>.</div></div>

</div>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Vision" class="extiw external" title="q:Vision">Vision</a></b></i>.</div></div>

</div>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vision" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:vision">vision</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webvision.med.utah.edu/">The Organization of the Retina and Visual System</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/EffectOfDetailOnVisualPerception/">Effect of Detail on Visual Perception</a> by Jon McLoone, the <a href="Wolfram_Demonstrations_Project" title="Wolfram Demonstrations Project">Wolfram Demonstrations Project</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yorku.ca/eye/toc.htm">The Joy of Visual Perception</a>, resource on the eye's perception abilities.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.visionscience.com/">VisionScience. Resource for Research in Human and Animal Vision</a> A collection of resources in vision science and perception</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cis.rit.edu/people/faculty/montag/vandplite/course.html">Vision and Psychophysics</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Category:Vision">Vision</a>, <a href="Scholarpedia" title="Scholarpedia">Scholarpedia</a> Expert articles about Vision</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20150727-what-are-the-limits-of-human-vision">What are the limits of human vision?</a></li></ul>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="25px_Topics_related_to_visual_perception130" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="25px_Topics_related_to_visual_perception130" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span typeof="mw:File"></span> Topics related to visual perception</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px">

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mental_processes175" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#efefef;"><div id="Mental_processes175" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Mental processes</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#efefef;;width:1%"><a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Association_(psychology)" title="Association (psychology)">Association</a></li>

<li><a href="Awareness" title="Awareness">Awareness</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_flexibility" title="Cognitive flexibility">Cognitive flexibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_liberty" title="Cognitive liberty">Cognitive liberty</a></li>

<li><a href="Forecasting" title="Forecasting">Forecasting</a>

<ul><li><a href="Affective_forecasting" title="Affective forecasting">affective</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Foresight_(psychology)" title="Foresight (psychology)">Foresight</a></li>

<li><a href="Understanding" title="Understanding">Comprehension</a></li>

<li><a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li>

<li><a href="Decision-making" title="Decision-making">Decision-making</a></li>

<li><a href="Imagination" title="Imagination">Imagination</a></li>

<li><a href="Intuition" title="Intuition">Intuition</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">Problem solving</a>

<ul><li><a href="Problem_solving#Problem-solving_methods" title="Problem solving">methods</a></li>

<li><a href="Problem_solving#Problem-solving_strategies" title="Problem solving">strategies</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Prospection" title="Prospection">Prospection</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#efefef;;width:1%"><a href="Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amodal_perception" title="Amodal perception">Amodal</a></li>

<li><a href="Color_vision" title="Color vision">Color</a>

<ul><li><a href="RGB_color_model" title="RGB color model">RGB model</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Depth_perception" title="Depth perception">Depth</a></li>

<li><a href="Haptic_perception" title="Haptic perception">Haptic</a> (<a href="Touch" class="mw-redirect" title="Touch">Touch</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Aesthetic_interpretation" title="Aesthetic interpretation">Perception as interpretation</a></li>

<li><a href="Peripheral_vision" title="Peripheral vision">Peripheral</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_perception" title="Social perception">Social</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychoacoustics" title="Psychoacoustics">Sound</a>

<ul><li><a href="Harmonic" title="Harmonic">Harmonics</a></li>

<li><a href="Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">Pitch</a></li>

<li><a href="Speech_perception" title="Speech perception">Speech</a></li></ul></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#efefef;;width:1%"><a href="Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Memory_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">Consolidation</a></li>

<li><a href="Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">Encoding</a></li>

<li><a href="Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">Storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">Recall</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#efefef;;width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li>

<li><a href="Experiential_avoidance" title="Experiential avoidance">Experiential avoidance</a></li>

<li><a href="Institute_of_Higher_Nervous_Activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Higher Nervous Activity">Higher nervous activity</a></li>

<li><a href="Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li>

<li><a href="Ironic_process_theory" title="Ironic process theory">Ironic process theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Learning" title="Learning">Learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Fatigue#Mental" title="Fatigue">Mental fatigue</a></li>

<li><a href="Relational_frame_theory" title="Relational frame theory">Relational frame theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Set_(psychology)" title="Set (psychology)">Mental set</a></li>

<li><a href="Thought" title="Thought">Thinking</a></li>

<li><a href="Thought_suppression" title="Thought suppression">Thought suppression</a></li>

<li><a href="Volition_(psychology)" title="Volition (psychology)">Volition</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#efefef;"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sensation_and_perception287" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sensation_and_perception287" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Sense" title="Sense">Sensation</a> and <a href="Perception" title="Perception">perception</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cognitive_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive process">Processes <br>and <br>concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sense" title="Sense">Sensation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Stimulus</a></li>

<li><a href="Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">Sensory receptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Transduction_(physiology)" title="Transduction (physiology)">Transduction (physiology)</a></li>

<li><a href="Sensory_processing" title="Sensory processing">Sensory processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Active_sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Active sensory system">Active sensory system</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Multimodal_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Multimodal integration">Multimodal integration</a></li>

<li><a href="Awareness" title="Awareness">Awareness</a></li>

<li><a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Feeling" title="Feeling">Feeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Motion_perception" title="Motion perception">Motion perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Human" title="Human">Human</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Exteroception" class="mw-redirect" title="Exteroception">External</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sensory_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory organ">Sensory organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Inner_ear" title="Inner ear">Inner ear</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">Mouth</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">Sensory systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Visual_system" title="Visual system">Visual system (sense of vision)</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_system" title="Auditory system">Auditory system (sense of hearing)</a></li>

<li><a href="Vestibular_system" title="Vestibular system">Vestibular system (sense of balance)</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_system" title="Olfactory system">Olfactory system (sense of smell)</a></li>

<li><a href="Gustatory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustatory system">Gustatory system (sense of taste)</a></li>

<li><a href="Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">Somatosensory system (sense of touch)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sensory <a href="Cranial_nerves" title="Cranial nerves">cranial</a> and <a href="Spinal_nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal nerves">spinal nerves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic (II)</a></li>

<li><a href="Vestibulocochlear_nerve" title="Vestibulocochlear nerve">Vestibulocochlear (VIII)</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_nerve" title="Olfactory nerve">Olfactory (I)</a></li>

<li><a href="Facial_nerve" title="Facial nerve">Facial (VII)</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Glossopharyngeal nerve">Glossopharyngeal (IX)</a></li>

<li><a href="Trigeminal_nerve" title="Trigeminal nerve">Trigeminal (V)</a></li>

<li><a href="Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">Spinal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sensory_cortex" title="Sensory cortex">Cerebral cortices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">Visual cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_cortex" title="Auditory cortex">Auditory cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Vestibular_cortex" title="Vestibular cortex">Vestibular cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory cortex">Olfactory cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Gustatory_cortex" title="Gustatory cortex">Gustatory cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Somatosensory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatosensory cortex">Somatosensory cortex</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Perceptions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Color" title="Color">Color</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_perception" class="mw-redirect" title="Auditory perception">Auditory perception (hearing)</a></li>

<li><a href="Equilibrioception" class="mw-redirect" title="Equilibrioception">Equilibrioception (balance)</a></li>

<li><a href="Sense_of_smell" title="Sense of smell">Olfaction (smell)</a></li>

<li><a href="Taste" title="Taste">Gustation (taste or flavor)</a></li>

<li><a href="Touch" class="mw-redirect" title="Touch">Touch</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mechanoreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanoreception">mechanoreception</a></li>

<li><a href="Nociception" title="Nociception">nociception (pain)</a></li>

<li><a href="Thermoception" title="Thermoception">thermoception</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Interoception" title="Interoception">Internal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Proprioception" title="Proprioception">Proprioception</a></li>

<li><a href="Hunger_(physiology)" title="Hunger (physiology)">Hunger</a></li>

<li><a href="Thirst" title="Thirst">Thirst</a></li>

<li><a href="Suffocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffocation">Suffocation</a></li>

<li><a href="Nausea" title="Nausea">Nausea</a></li>

<li><a href="Visceral_pain" title="Visceral pain">Visceral pain</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Nonhuman" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonhuman">Nonhuman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sense" title="Sense">Animal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Electroreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroreception">Electroreception</a></li>

<li><a href="Magnetoreception" title="Magnetoreception">Magnetoreception</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_echolocation" title="Animal echolocation">Echolocation</a></li>

<li><a href="Infrared_sensing_in_vampire_bats" title="Infrared sensing in vampire bats">Infrared sensing in vampire bats</a></li>

<li><a href="Infrared_sensing_in_snakes" title="Infrared sensing in snakes">Infrared sensing in snakes</a></li>

<li><a href="Surface_wave_detection" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface wave detection">Surface wave detection</a></li>

<li><a href="Frog_hearing_and_communication" title="Frog hearing and communication">Frog hearing</a></li>

<li><a href="Vision_in_toads" title="Vision in toads">Toad vision</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Plant_perception_(physiology)" title="Plant perception (physiology)">Plant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Photomorphogenesis" title="Photomorphogenesis">Photomorphogenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Gravitropism" title="Gravitropism">Gravitropism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Machine_perception" title="Machine perception">Artificial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Robotic_sensing" title="Robotic sensing">Robotic sensing</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Machine_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine hearing">Machine hearing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of <br><a href="Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">sensory receptors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mechanoreceptor" title="Mechanoreceptor">Mechanoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Baroreceptor" title="Baroreceptor">Baroreceptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Mechanotransduction" title="Mechanotransduction">Mechanotransduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Lamellar_corpuscle" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamellar corpuscle">Lamellar corpuscle</a></li>

<li><a href="Tactile_corpuscle" title="Tactile corpuscle">Tactile corpuscle</a></li>

<li><a href="Merkel_nerve_ending" title="Merkel nerve ending">Merkel nerve ending</a></li>

<li><a href="Bulbous_corpuscle" title="Bulbous corpuscle">Bulbous corpuscle</a></li>

<li><a href="Campaniform_sensilla" title="Campaniform sensilla">Campaniform sensilla</a></li>

<li><a href="Slit_sensilla" title="Slit sensilla">Slit sensilla</a></li>

<li><a href="Stretch_receptor" title="Stretch receptor">Stretch receptor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Photoreceptor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">Photoreceptor cell</a></li>

<li><a href="IpRGC" class="mw-redirect" title="IpRGC">ipRGC</a></li>

<li><a href="Photopigment" title="Photopigment">Photopigment</a></li>

<li><a href="Aureochromes" title="Aureochromes">Aureochrome</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Chemoreceptor" title="Chemoreceptor">Chemoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">Taste receptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_receptor" title="Olfactory receptor">Olfactory receptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Osmoreceptor" title="Osmoreceptor">Osmoreceptor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Thermoreceptor" title="Thermoreceptor">Thermoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cilium#Sensing_the_extracellular_environment" title="Cilium">Cilium</a></li>

<li><a href="TRP_channels" class="mw-redirect" title="TRP channels">TRP channels</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Nociceptor" title="Nociceptor">Nociceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Nociceptin_receptor#Pain_circuitry" title="Nociceptin receptor">Nociceptin receptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Juxtacapillary_receptors" title="Juxtacapillary receptors">Juxtacapillary receptor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Vision_disorder" title="Vision disorder">Visual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment">Visual impairment</a></li>

<li><a href="Alice_in_Wonderland_syndrome" title="Alice in Wonderland syndrome">Alice in Wonderland syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Amaurosis" title="Amaurosis">Amaurosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Anopsia" title="Anopsia">Anopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">Color blindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Diplopia" title="Diplopia">Diplopia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hemeralopia" title="Hemeralopia">Hemeralopia</a> and <a href="Nyctalopia" title="Nyctalopia">Nyctalopia</a></li>

<li><a href="Optic_neuropathy" title="Optic neuropathy">Optic neuropathy</a></li>

<li><a href="Oscillopsia" title="Oscillopsia">Oscillopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Palinopsia" title="Palinopsia">Palinopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Papilledema" title="Papilledema">Papilledema</a></li>

<li><a href="Photophobia" title="Photophobia">Photophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Photopsia" title="Photopsia">Photopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Cerebral_polyopia" title="Cerebral polyopia">Polyopia</a></li>

<li><a href="Scotoma" title="Scotoma">Scotoma</a></li>

<li><a href="Stereoblindness" title="Stereoblindness">Stereoblindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_snow" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual snow">Visual snow</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Auditory_processing_disorder" title="Auditory processing disorder">Auditory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amblyaudia" title="Amblyaudia">Amblyaudia</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_agnosia" title="Auditory agnosia">Auditory agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_hallucination" title="Auditory hallucination">Auditory hallucination</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_verbal_agnosia" title="Auditory verbal agnosia">Auditory verbal agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Cortical_deafness" title="Cortical deafness">Cortical deafness</a></li>

<li><a href="Hearing_loss" title="Hearing loss">Hearing loss</a></li>

<li><a href="Microwave_auditory_effect" title="Microwave auditory effect">Microwave auditory effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Music-specific_disorders" title="Music-specific disorders">Music-specific disorders</a></li>

<li><a href="Palinopsia" title="Palinopsia">Palinopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Spatial_hearing_loss" title="Spatial hearing loss">Spatial hearing loss</a></li>

<li><a href="Tinnitus" title="Tinnitus">Tinnitus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Balance_disorder" title="Balance disorder">Vestibular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vertigo" title="Vertigo">Vertigo</a></li>

<li><a href="Labyrinthine_fistula" title="Labyrinthine fistula">Labyrinthine fistula</a></li>

<li><a href="Labyrinthitis" title="Labyrinthitis">Labyrinthitis</a></li>

<li><a href="M%C3%A9ni%C3%A8re's_disease" title="Ménière's disease">Ménière's disease</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">Olfactory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anosmia" title="Anosmia">Anosmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Dysosmia" title="Dysosmia">Dysosmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperosmia" title="Hyperosmia">Hyperosmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyposmia" title="Hyposmia">Hyposmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_reference_syndrome" title="Olfactory reference syndrome">Olfactory reference syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Parosmia" title="Parosmia">Parosmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Phantosmia" title="Phantosmia">Phantosmia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Taste_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste disorder">Gustatory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ageusia" title="Ageusia">Ageusia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypergeusia" title="Hypergeusia">Hypergeusia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypogeusia" title="Hypogeusia">Hypogeusia</a></li>

<li><a href="Parageusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Parageusia">Parageusia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Somatosensory_disorder" title="Somatosensory disorder">Tactile</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Astereognosis" title="Astereognosis">Astereognosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Charcot%E2%80%93Marie%E2%80%93Tooth_disease" title="Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease">CMT disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Formication" title="Formication">Formication</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperesthesia" title="Hyperesthesia">Hyperesthesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypoesthesia" title="Hypoesthesia">Hypoesthesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Paresthesia" title="Paresthesia">Paresthesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Tactile_hallucination" title="Tactile hallucination">Tactile hallucination</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nociception (pain)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hyperalgesia" title="Hyperalgesia">Hyperalgesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypoalgesia" title="Hypoalgesia">Hypoalgesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Pain_dissociation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pain dissociation">Pain dissociation</a></li>

<li><a href="Phantom_pain" title="Phantom pain">Phantom pain</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proprioception</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Asomatognosia" title="Asomatognosia">Asomatognosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Phantom_limb" title="Phantom limb">Phantom limb syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Somatoparaphrenia" title="Somatoparaphrenia">Somatoparaphrenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Supernumerary_phantom_limb" title="Supernumerary phantom limb">Supernumerary phantom limb</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multimodal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Agnosia" title="Agnosia">Agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Allochiria" title="Allochiria">Allochiria</a></li>

<li><a href="Derealization" title="Derealization">Derealization</a></li>

<li><a href="Hallucination" title="Hallucination">Hallucination</a></li>

<li><a href="Sensory_processing_disorder" title="Sensory processing disorder">Sensory processing disorder</a></li>

<li><a href="Synesthesia" title="Synesthesia">Synesthesia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biases and errors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Illusion" title="Illusion">Illusion</a> · <a href="Pareidolia" title="Pareidolia">Pareidolia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Optical_illusions_(list)89" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Optical_illusions_(list)89" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Optical_illusion" title="Optical illusion">Optical illusions</a> (<a href="List_of_optical_illusions" title="List of optical illusions">list</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Illusions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Afterimage" title="Afterimage">Afterimage</a></li>

<li><a href="Ambigram" title="Ambigram">Ambigram</a></li>

<li><a href="Ambiguous_image" title="Ambiguous image">Ambiguous image</a></li>

<li><a href="Autostereogram" title="Autostereogram">Autostereogram</a></li>

<li><a href="Barberpole_illusion" title="Barberpole illusion">Barberpole</a></li>

<li><a href="Bezold_effect" title="Bezold effect">Bezold</a></li>

<li><a href="Checker_shadow_illusion" title="Checker shadow illusion">Checker shadow</a></li>

<li><a href="Chubb_illusion" title="Chubb illusion">Chubb</a></li>

<li><a href="Cornsweet_illusion" title="Cornsweet illusion">Cornsweet</a></li>

<li><a href="Delboeuf_illusion" title="Delboeuf illusion">Delboeuf</a></li>

<li><a href="Ebbinghaus_illusion" title="Ebbinghaus illusion">Ebbinghaus</a></li>

<li><a href="Ehrenstein_illusion" title="Ehrenstein illusion">Ehrenstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Flash_lag_illusion" title="Flash lag illusion">Flash lag</a></li>

<li><a href="Fraser_spiral_illusion" title="Fraser spiral illusion">Fraser spiral</a></li>

<li><a href="Gravity_hill" title="Gravity hill">Gravity hill</a></li>

<li><a href="Hering_illusion" title="Hering illusion">Hering</a></li>

<li><a href="Impossible_trident" title="Impossible trident">Impossible trident</a></li>

<li><a href="Irradiation_illusion" title="Irradiation illusion">Irradiation</a></li>

<li><a href="Jastrow_illusion" title="Jastrow illusion">Jastrow</a></li>

<li><a href="Lilac_chaser" title="Lilac chaser">Lilac chaser</a></li>

<li><a href="Mach_bands" title="Mach bands">Mach bands</a></li>

<li><a href="McCollough_effect" title="McCollough effect">McCollough</a></li>

<li><a href="M%C3%BCller-Lyer_illusion" title="Müller-Lyer illusion">Müller-Lyer</a></li>

<li><a href="Necker_cube" title="Necker cube">Necker cube</a></li>

<li><a href="Oppel-Kundt_illusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppel-Kundt illusion">Oppel-Kundt</a></li>

<li><a href="Orbison_illusion" title="Orbison illusion">Orbison</a></li>

<li><a href="Penrose_stairs" title="Penrose stairs">Penrose stairs</a></li>

<li><a href="Penrose_triangle" title="Penrose triangle">Penrose triangle</a></li>

<li><a href="Peripheral_drift_illusion" title="Peripheral drift illusion">Peripheral drift</a></li>

<li><a href="Poggendorff_illusion" title="Poggendorff illusion">Poggendorff</a></li>

<li><a href="Ponzo_illusion" title="Ponzo illusion">Ponzo</a></li>

<li><a href="Rubin_vase" title="Rubin vase">Rubin vase</a></li>

<li><a href="Sander_illusion" title="Sander illusion">Sander</a></li>

<li><a href="Schroeder_stairs" title="Schroeder stairs">Schroeder stairs</a></li>

<li><a href="Shepard_tables" title="Shepard tables">Shepard tables</a></li>

<li><a href="Spinning_dancer" title="Spinning dancer">Spinning dancer</a></li>

<li><a href="Ternus_illusion" title="Ternus illusion">Ternus</a></li>

<li><a href="Vertical%E2%80%93horizontal_illusion" title="Vertical–horizontal illusion">Vertical–horizontal</a></li>

<li><a href="White's_illusion" title="White's illusion">White's</a></li>

<li><a href="Wundt_illusion" title="Wundt illusion">Wundt</a></li>

<li><a href="Z%C3%B6llner_illusion" title="Zöllner illusion">Zöllner</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><i><a href="Trompe-l'%C5%93il" title="Trompe-l'œil">Trompe-l'œil</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Spectropia" title="Spectropia">Spectropia</a></i> (1864 book)</li>

<li><i><a href="Ascending_and_Descending" title="Ascending and Descending">Ascending and Descending</a></i> (1960 drawing)</li>

<li><i><a href="Waterfall_(M._C._Escher)" title="Waterfall (M. C. Escher)">Waterfall</a></i> (1961 drawing)</li>

<li><i><a href="The_dress" title="The dress">The dress</a></i> (2015 photograph)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Accidental_viewpoint" title="Accidental viewpoint">Accidental viewpoint</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_illusion" title="Auditory illusion">Auditory illusions</a></li>

<li><a href="Illusion" title="Illusion">Illusions</a></li>

<li><a href="Tactile_illusion" title="Tactile illusion">Tactile illusions</a></li>

<li><a href="Time_perception" title="Time perception">Temporal illusion</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Vision_in_animals86" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Vision_in_animals86" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Vision in animals</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Visual_system" title="Visual system">Vision</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bird_vision" title="Bird vision">Birds</a></li>

<li><a href="Chameleon_vision" title="Chameleon vision">Chameleons</a></li>

<li><a href="Dinosaur_vision" title="Dinosaur vision">Dinosaurs</a></li>

<li><a href="Vision_in_toads" title="Vision in toads">Toads</a></li>

<li><a href="Mammalian_vision" title="Mammalian vision">Mammals</a>

<ul><li><a href="Equine_vision" title="Equine vision">horses</a></li>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Eye" title="Eye">Eyes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arthropod_eye" title="Arthropod eye">Arthropod eye</a></li>

<li><a href="Compound_eye" title="Compound eye">Compound eye</a></li>

<li><a href="Eagle_eye" title="Eagle eye">Eagle eye</a></li>

<li><a href="Tapetum_lucidum" title="Tapetum lucidum">Eye shine</a></li>

<li><a href="Simple_eye_in_invertebrates" title="Simple eye in invertebrates">Simple eye in invertebrates</a></li>

<li><a href="Mammalian_eye" title="Mammalian eye">Mammalian eye</a>

<ul><li><a href="Human_eye" title="Human eye">human</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mollusc_eye" title="Mollusc eye">Mollusc eye</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cephalopod_eye" title="Cephalopod eye">cephalopod</a></li>

<li><a href="Gastropod_eye" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod eye">gastropod</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Holochroal_eye" title="Holochroal eye">Holochroal eye</a></li>

<li><a href="Parietal_eye" title="Parietal eye">Parietal eye</a></li>

<li><a href="Schizochroal_eye" class="mw-redirect" title="Schizochroal eye">Schizochroal eye</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Evolution of the eye</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Evolution of color vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Evolution of color vision in primates</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Coloration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Albinism" title="Albinism">Albinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li>

<li><a href="Aposematism" title="Aposematism">Aposematism</a></li>

<li><a href="Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li>

<li><a href="Chromatophore" title="Chromatophore">Chromatophore</a></li>

<li><a href="Counter-illumination" title="Counter-illumination">Counter-illumination</a></li>

<li><a href="Countershading" title="Countershading">Countershading</a></li>

<li><a href="Crypsis" title="Crypsis">Crypsis</a></li>

<li><a href="Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li>

<li><a href="Disruptive_coloration" title="Disruptive coloration">Disruptive coloration</a>

<ul><li><a href="Coincident_disruptive_coloration" title="Coincident disruptive coloration">coincident</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Eyespot_(mimicry)" title="Eyespot (mimicry)">Eyespot (mimicry)</a></li>

<li><a href="Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_coloration" title="Structural coloration">Structural coloration</a></li>

<li><a href="Underwater_camouflage" title="Underwater camouflage">Underwater camouflage</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sense" title="Sense">Animal senses</a></li>

<li><a href="Blindness_in_animals" title="Blindness in animals">Blindness in animals</a></li>

<li><a href="Eyespot_apparatus" title="Eyespot apparatus">Eyespot apparatus</a></li>

<li><a href="Feature_detection_(nervous_system)" title="Feature detection (nervous system)">Feature detection</a></li>

<li><a href="Infrared_sensing_in_snakes" title="Infrared sensing in snakes">Infrared sensing in snakes</a></li>

<li><a href="Monocular_deprivation" title="Monocular deprivation">Monocular deprivation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ommatidium" title="Ommatidium">Ommatidium</a></li>

<li><a href="Palpebral_(bone)" title="Palpebral (bone)">Palpebral (bone)</a></li>

<li><a href="Pseudopupil" title="Pseudopupil">Pseudopupil</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhopalium" title="Rhopalium">Rhopalium</a></li>

<li><a href="Underwater_vision" title="Underwater vision">Underwater vision</a></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Visualization_of_technical_information112" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Visualization_of_technical_information112" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a> of technical information</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_imaging" title="Chemical imaging">Chemical imaging</a></li>

<li><a href="Crime_mapping" title="Crime mapping">Crime mapping</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Data visualization">Data visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Educational visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Flow_visualization" title="Flow visualization">Flow visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Information visualization">Information visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_diagram" title="Mathematical diagram">Mathematical visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_graphics" title="Molecular graphics">Molecular graphics</a></li>

<li><a href="Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Product visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_visualization" title="Scientific visualization">Scientific visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_visualization" title="Social visualization">Social visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_visualization" title="Software visualization">Software visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Technical_drawing" title="Technical drawing">Technical drawing</a></li>

<li><a href="User_interface_design" title="User interface design">User interface design</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_analytics" title="Visual analytics">Visual analytics</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_culture" title="Visual culture">Visual culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Volume_rendering" title="Volume rendering">Volume visualization</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Image <br>types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chart" title="Chart">Chart</a></li>

<li><a href="Diagram" title="Diagram">Diagram</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_drawing" title="Engineering drawing">Engineering drawing</a></li>

<li><a href="Graph_of_a_function" title="Graph of a function">Graph of a function</a></li>

<li><a href="Ideogram" title="Ideogram">Ideogram</a></li>

<li><a href="Photograph" title="Photograph">Photograph</a></li>

<li><a href="Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictogram</a></li>

<li><a href="Sankey_diagram" title="Sankey diagram">Sankey diagram</a></li>

<li><a href="Schematic" title="Schematic">Schematic</a></li>

<li><a href="Skeletal_formula" title="Skeletal formula">Skeletal formula</a></li>

<li><a href="Statistical_graphics" title="Statistical graphics">Statistical graphics</a></li>

<li><a href="Table_(information)" title="Table (information)">Table</a></li>

<li><a href="Technical_drawing" title="Technical drawing">Technical drawings</a></li>

<li><a href="Technical_illustration" title="Technical illustration">Technical illustration</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Edmond_Halley" title="Edmond Halley">Edmond Halley</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles-Ren%C3%A9_de_Fourcroy" title="Charles-René de Fourcroy">Charles-René de Fourcroy</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a></li>

<li><a href="Gaspard_Monge" title="Gaspard Monge">Gaspard Monge</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Charles_Dupin" title="Charles Dupin">Charles Dupin</a></li>

<li><a href="Adolphe_Quetelet" title="Adolphe Quetelet">Adolphe Quetelet</a></li>

<li><a href="Andr%C3%A9-Michel_Guerry" title="André-Michel Guerry">André-Michel Guerry</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Playfair" title="William Playfair">William Playfair</a></li>

<li><a href="August_Kekul%C3%A9" title="August Kekulé">August Kekulé</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Joseph_Minard" title="Charles Joseph Minard">Charles Joseph Minard</a></li>

<li><a href="Francis_Amasa_Walker" title="Francis Amasa Walker">Francis Amasa Walker</a></li>

<li><a href="Oliver_Byrne_(mathematician)" title="Oliver Byrne (mathematician)">Oliver Byrne</a></li>

<li><a href="Matthew_Henry_Phineas_Riall_Sankey" title="Matthew Henry Phineas Riall Sankey">Matthew Sankey</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Booth_(social_reformer)" title="Charles Booth (social reformer)">Charles Booth</a></li>

<li><a href="Florence_Nightingale" title="Florence Nightingale">Florence Nightingale</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Wilhelm_Pohlke" title="Karl Wilhelm Pohlke">Karl Wilhelm Pohlke</a></li>

<li><a href="Toussaint_Loua" title="Toussaint Loua">Toussaint Loua</a></li>

<li><a href="Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early 20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Edward_Walter_Maunder" title="Edward Walter Maunder">Edward Walter Maunder</a></li>

<li><a href="Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_Gantt" title="Henry Gantt">Henry Gantt</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Lyon_Bowley" title="Arthur Lyon Bowley">Arthur Lyon Bowley</a></li>

<li><a href="Howard_G._Funkhouser" title="Howard G. Funkhouser">Howard G. Funkhouser</a></li>

<li><a href="John_B._Peddle" title="John B. Peddle">John B. Peddle</a></li>

<li><a href="Ejnar_Hertzsprung" title="Ejnar Hertzsprung">Ejnar Hertzsprung</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_Norris_Russell" title="Henry Norris Russell">Henry Norris Russell</a></li>

<li><a href="Max_O._Lorenz" title="Max O. Lorenz">Max O. Lorenz</a></li>

<li><a href="Fritz_Kahn" title="Fritz Kahn">Fritz Kahn</a></li>

<li><a href="Harry_Beck" title="Harry Beck">Harry Beck</a></li>

<li><a href="Erwin_Raisz" title="Erwin Raisz">Erwin Raisz</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mid 20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jacques_Bertin" title="Jacques Bertin">Jacques Bertin</a></li>

<li><a href="Rudolf_Modley" title="Rudolf Modley">Rudolf Modley</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_H._Robinson" title="Arthur H. Robinson">Arthur H. Robinson</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Tukey" title="John Tukey">John Tukey</a></li>

<li><a href="Mary_Eleanor_Spear" title="Mary Eleanor Spear">Mary Eleanor Spear</a></li>

<li><a href="Edgar_Anderson" title="Edgar Anderson">Edgar Anderson</a></li>

<li><a href="Howard_T._Fisher" title="Howard T. Fisher">Howard T. Fisher</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Late 20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Borden_Dent" title="Borden Dent">Borden Dent</a></li>

<li><a href="Nigel_Holmes" title="Nigel Holmes">Nigel Holmes</a></li>

<li><a href="William_S._Cleveland" title="William S. Cleveland">William S. Cleveland</a></li>

<li><a href="George_G._Robertson" title="George G. Robertson">George G. Robertson</a></li>

<li><a href="Bruce_H._McCormick" title="Bruce H. McCormick">Bruce H. McCormick</a></li>

<li><a href="Catherine_Plaisant" title="Catherine Plaisant">Catherine Plaisant</a></li>

<li><a href="Stuart_Card" title="Stuart Card">Stuart Card</a></li>

<li><a href="Pat_Hanrahan" title="Pat Hanrahan">Pat Hanrahan</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Tufte" title="Edward Tufte">Edward Tufte</a></li>

<li><a href="Ben_Shneiderman" title="Ben Shneiderman">Ben Shneiderman</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Friendly" title="Michael Friendly">Michael Friendly</a></li>

<li><a href="Howard_Wainer" title="Howard Wainer">Howard Wainer</a></li>

<li><a href="Clifford_A._Pickover" title="Clifford A. Pickover">Clifford A. Pickover</a></li>

<li><a href="Lawrence_J._Rosenblum" title="Lawrence J. Rosenblum">Lawrence J. Rosenblum</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_A._DeFanti" title="Thomas A. DeFanti">Thomas A. DeFanti</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Furnas" title="George Furnas">George Furnas</a></li>

<li><a href="Sheelagh_Carpendale" title="Sheelagh Carpendale">Sheelagh Carpendale</a></li>

<li><a href="Cynthia_Brewer" title="Cynthia Brewer">Cynthia Brewer</a></li>

<li><a href="Jock_D._Mackinlay" title="Jock D. Mackinlay">Jock D. Mackinlay</a></li>

<li><a href="Alan_MacEachren" title="Alan MacEachren">Alan MacEachren</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Goodsell" title="David Goodsell">David Goodsell</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Maltz" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Maltz">Michael Maltz</a></li>

<li><a href="Leland_Wilkinson" title="Leland Wilkinson">Leland Wilkinson</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_Inselberg" title="Alfred Inselberg">Alfred Inselberg</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early 21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Jeffrey_Heer" title="Jeffrey Heer">Jeffrey Heer</a></li>

<li><a href="Jessica_Hullman" title="Jessica Hullman">Jessica Hullman</a></li>

<li><a href="Daniel_A._Keim" title="Daniel A. Keim">Daniel A. Keim</a></li>

<li><a href="Gordon_Kindlmann" title="Gordon Kindlmann">Gordon Kindlmann</a></li>

<li><a href="Aaron_Koblin" title="Aaron Koblin">Aaron Koblin</a></li>

<li><a href="Christopher_R._Johnson" title="Christopher R. Johnson">Christopher R. Johnson</a></li>

<li><a href="Manuel_Lima" title="Manuel Lima">Manuel Lima</a></li>

<li><a href="David_McCandless" title="David McCandless">David McCandless</a></li>

<li><a href="Mauro_Martino" title="Mauro Martino">Mauro Martino</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Maeda" title="John Maeda">John Maeda</a></li>

<li><a href="Miriah_Meyer" title="Miriah Meyer">Miriah Meyer</a></li>

<li><a href="Tamara_Munzner" title="Tamara Munzner">Tamara Munzner</a></li>

<li><a href="Ade_Olufeko" class="mw-redirect" title="Ade Olufeko">Ade Olufeko</a></li>

<li><a href="Hanspeter_Pfister" title="Hanspeter Pfister">Hanspeter Pfister</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Rosling" title="Hans Rosling">Hans Rosling</a></li>

<li><a href="Claudio_Silva_(computer_scientist)" title="Claudio Silva (computer scientist)">Claudio Silva</a></li>

<li><a href="Moritz_Stefaner" title="Moritz Stefaner">Moritz Stefaner</a></li>

<li><a href="Fernanda_Vi%C3%A9gas" title="Fernanda Viégas">Fernanda Viégas</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_M._Wattenberg" title="Martin M. Wattenberg">Martin Wattenberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Hadley_Wickham" title="Hadley Wickham">Hadley Wickham</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related <br>topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a></li>

<li><a href="Chartjunk" title="Chartjunk">Chartjunk</a></li>

<li><a href="Color_coding_in_data_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Color coding in data visualization">Color coding</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Computer graphics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Computer_graphics_(computer_science)" title="Computer graphics (computer science)">in computer science</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="CPK_coloring" title="CPK coloring">CPK coloring</a></li>

<li><a href="Graph_drawing" title="Graph drawing">Graph drawing</a></li>

<li><a href="Graphic_design" title="Graphic design">Graphic design</a></li>

<li><a href="Graphic_organizer" title="Graphic organizer">Graphic organizer</a></li>

<li><a href="Imaging_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Imaging science">Imaging science</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_art" title="Information art">Information art</a></li>

<li><a href="Infographic" title="Infographic">Information graphics</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li>

<li><a href="Misleading_graph" title="Misleading graph">Misleading graph</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li>

<li><a href="Patent_drawing" title="Patent drawing">Patent drawing</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">Scientific modelling</a></li>

<li><a href="Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Volume_cartography" title="Volume cartography">Volume cartography</a></li>

<li><a href="Volume_rendering" title="Volume rendering">Volume rendering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="History of evolutionary psychology">History</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Theoretical_foundations_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology">Theoretical foundations</a>

<ul><li><a href="Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene selection theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Criticism of evolutionary psychology">Criticism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Evolutionary<br>processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li>

<li><a href="Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li>

<li><a href="Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li>

<li><a href="Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li>

<li><a href="Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li>

<li><a href="Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a>

<ul><li><a href="Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Inbreeding_avoidance" title="Inbreeding avoidance">Inbreeding avoidance</a></li>

<li><a href="Kin_recognition" title="Kin recognition">Kin recognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li>

<li><a href="Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li>

<li><a href="Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li>

<li><a href="Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Species-typical_behavior" title="Species-typical behavior">Species-typical behavior</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> /<br><a href="Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a>

<ul><li><a href="Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li>

<li><a href="Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li>

<li><a href="Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a>

<ul><li><a href="Adaptive_unconscious" title="Adaptive unconscious">Adaptive unconscious</a>/<a href="Unconscious_cognition" title="Unconscious cognition">Unconscious cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_specialization" title="Cognitive specialization">Cognitive specialization</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li>

<li><a href="Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a>/<a href="Domain-specific_learning" title="Domain-specific learning">learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a>

<ul><li><a href="Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a>

<ul><li><a href="Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li>

<li><a href="Numerical_cognition" title="Numerical cognition">Numerical cognition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Number_sense" title="Number sense">Number sense</a></li>

<li><a href="Approximate_number_system" title="Approximate number system">Approximate number system</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_individuation_system" title="Parallel individuation system">Parallel individuation system</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a>

<ul><li><a href="Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a>

<ul><li><a href="Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a>

<ul><li><a href="Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li>

<li><a href="Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li>

<li><a href="Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li>

<li><a href="Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li>

<li><a href="Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li>

<li><a href="Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li>

<li><a href="Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> /<br><a href="Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li>

<li><a href="Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li>

<li><a href="Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li>

<li><a href="Societal_effects_of_cars" title="Societal effects of cars">Societal effects of cars</a>

<ul><li><a href="Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li>

<li><a href="Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li>

<li><a href="Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li>

<li><a href="Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li>

<li><a href="Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li>

<li><a href="Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li>

<li><a href="Incest_taboo" title="Incest taboo">Incest taboo</a>

<ul><li><a href="Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li>

<li><a href="Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li>

<li><a href="Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li>

<li><a href="Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Biolinguistics" title="Biolinguistics">Biolinguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_ethology" title="Cognitive ethology">Cognitive ethology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">Animal</a>/<a href="Comparative_cognition" title="Comparative cognition">comparative cognition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_culture" title="Animal culture">Animal culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_language" title="Animal language">Animal language</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_navigation" title="Animal navigation">Animal navigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_training" title="Animal training">Animal training</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal-made_art" title="Animal-made art">Animal-made art</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_bias_in_animals" title="Cognitive bias in animals">Cognitive bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">Emotion</a></li>

<li><a href="G_factor_in_non-humans" title="G factor in non-humans"><i>g</i> factor in non-humans</a></li>

<li><a href="Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li>

<li><a href="Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Number_sense_in_animals" title="Number sense in animals">Number sense</a></li>

<li><a href="Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_mind_in_animals" title="Theory of mind in animals">Theory of mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Fisher's_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li>

<li><a href="Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a>/<a href="Acquired_characteristic" title="Acquired characteristic">acquired characteristics</a></li>

<li><a href="Population" title="Population">Population</a></li>

<li><a href="Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a href="Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Species" title="Species">Species</a></li>

<li><a href="Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li>

<li><a href="Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li>

<li><a href="Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>/<a href="Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Standard_social_science_model" title="Standard social science model">Standard social science model</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">Multilineal evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">Sociocultural evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">Unilineal evolution</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><b><a href="List_of_evolutionary_psychologists" title="List of evolutionary psychologists">Evolutionary psychologists</a></b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> <b>Evolutionary psychology</b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <b><a href="Portal%3APsychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <b><a href="Portal%3AEvolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology portal</a></b></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q162668#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2093" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q162668#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2093" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Visuelle Wahrnehmung"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4078921-4">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85143872">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Vision"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11947019s">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Vision"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11947019s">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00570942">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="zrak"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph127684&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="vizuální vnímání"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph116789&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007543809605171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/basar--insan">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/be04c6c4-5b1e-4a34-8783-927248ce54ed">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-02" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Visual_perception&oldid=1298360635">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

</div>

</div></div>

</div>

</main>

</div>

</body></html>